ANTHROPOLOGY 13-01	Dr. Charles F. Urbanowicz/Professor of Anthropology
FALL 1998 NOTEBOOK/WEB SYLLABUS	California State University, Chico/Office: Butte 317
Introduction to Cultural Anthropology [TRACS #10209]	Office Hours: Mon & Wed 9->9:30am & 2:30->4:30pm
13-01} MWF from 10->10:50am (AYRES 106)	Office Phone: (530) 898-6220/Dept: (530) 898-6192
e-mail: curbanowicz@csuchico.edu	http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/

© Charles F. Urbanowicz/September 21, 1998} This copyrighted Web Notebook, printed from http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/syllabi/SYL_13-F98.html, is intended for use by students enrolled at California State University, Chico, in the Fall Semester of 1998 and any unauthorized use/publication is strictly prohibited. Since a "Web Page" should be viewed as an "evolving" item, updated information added to this electronic syllabus [initially placed on the WWW at California State University, Chico, on August 12, 1998], is available by clicking here; and for a MOST IMPORTANT BRIEF DISCLAIMER ESSAY about these ANTH 13 web pages, please click here!

DESCRIPTION: The human being as a culture-bearing animal. The bases of culture and behavior. A study of the interrelated aspects of culture, including language, world-view, technology, social organization, and the arts. This is an approved General Education course. This is an approved Non-Western course. (1997-1999 Catalog, Page 185)

REQUIRED TEXTS AVAILABLE IN ASSOCIATED STUDENTS BOOKSTORE:

Spradley and McCurdy (1997) Conformity & Conflict: Readings In Cultural Anthropology (9th Ed.)
George R. Stewart (1949) Earth Abides
Charles F. Urbanowicz (Fall 1998 edition) Anthropology 13 Notebook [also available at http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/syllabi/SYL_13-F98.html]

RECOMMENDED ITEM: The World Almanac and Book of Facts: 1998

ASSESSMENT: There are no make-up exams and late Writing Assignments will not be accepted. PLEASE NOTE THE FOLLOWING IMPORTANT DATES:

WRITING ASSIGNMENT #1	9/28/98 (5%) Due at the end of Week 5 (FRIDAY).
EXAM I	10/2/98 (20%) Based on readings and lectures to 9/30/98.
EXAM II	11/13/98 (25%) Based on readings and lectures since 10/5/98.
WRITING ASSIGNMENT #2	12/4/98 (15%) Due at the End of Week 15 (FRIDAY).
EXAM III} 13-01 = WED (10-11:50am)	12/16/98 (30%) Based on readings and lectures since 11/16/98 and major points and Earth Abides.
CLASS PARTICIPATION	8/24/98 -> 12/11/98 (5%).

THE COURSE is heavily mediated with visuals and individuals are responsible for certain information presented in this manner. Individuals are expected to locate major land masses discussed in lectures, readings, visuals, etc. Each examination will have a map component based on the maps in one of the required texts: Anthropology 13 Notebook . Individuals are also responsible for selected information distributed in any handouts for the course. Writing Assignment #1 should be approximately 400-500 words. Writing Assignment #2 should be approximately 1200-1500 words. Both Writing Assignments should be typed and/or word-processed and double-spaced. PLEASE NOTE: Various WWW addresses are given below and will be explained throughout the semester, but at this time, no examination questions will be based on these WWW locations: they are being shared with you for future exploration on your own. [The above paragraph contains 135 words.]

PLEASE CONSIDER: INTERNATIONAL FORUM (SOSC 100-01#14711) for One Unit every Tuesday from 4-5:20pm in Ayres Hall 120 and ANTHROPOLOGY FORUM (ANTH 297-01#10263) for One Unit every Thursday from 4-5:20pm in Ayres Hall 120.

1. WEEK 1: 24 AUGUST 1998: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW TO THE COURSE.

2. WEEK 2: 31 AUGUST 1998: WHAT DOES AN ANTHROPOLOGIST DO?

3. WEEK 3: DAYS OF 9 AND 11 SEPTEMBER 1998: CULTURE & ETHNOGRAPHY (CONTINUED)

4. WEEK 4: 14 SEPTEMBER 1998: RESEARCH & ECOLOGY & SUBSISTENCE

5. WEEK 5: 21 SEPTEMBER 1998: ECOLOGY & SUBSISTENCE & WA #1 DUE September 25.

6. WEEK 6: 28 SEPTEMBER 1998: LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION & EXAM I on October 2.

7. WEEK 7: 5 OCTOBER 1998: ECONOMICS & KINSHIP & FAMILY & MAGIC & RELIGION & ...

8. WEEK 8: 12 OCTOBER 1998: ROLES & INEQUALITY & ECONOMICS & CHANGE

9. WEEK 9: 19 OCTOBER 1998: WEEK #8 TOPICS CONTINUED & CULTURE CHANGE

10. WEEK 10: 26 OCTOBER 1998: CULTURE CHANGE (CONTINUED)

11. & 12: WEEKS 11 & 12: 2 NOVEMBER 1998 and 9 NOVEMBER 1998: LAW & POLITICS & RELIGION, MAGIC, WORLD VIEW, and EXAM II on Friday November 13.

13. WEEK 13: 16 NOVEMBER 1998: ON RELIGION, MAGIC, AND WORLD VIEW (CONTINUED)

14. WEEK 14: THANKSGIVING VACATION WEEK!

15. WEEK 15: 30 NOVEMBER 1998: ALMOST OVER & WINDING DOWN & WA #2 DUE on December 4.

16. WEEK 16: 7 DECEMBER 1998: CULTURE CHANGE AND APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY & EXAM III NEXT WEEK on Wednesday December 16, 1998, from 10-11:50am in Ayres 106.

1. An understanding of the phenomenon of culture as that which differentiates human life from other life forms; an understanding of the roles of human biology and cultural processes in human behavior and human evolution.

2. A positive appreciation of the diversity of contemporary and past human cultures and an awareness of the value of anthropological perspectives and knowledge in contemporary society.

3. A knowledge of the substantive data pertinent to the several sub disciplines of anthropology and familiarity with major issues relevant to each.

4. Familiarity with the forms of anthropological literature and basic data sources and knowledge of how to access such information.

5. Knowledge of the methodology appropriate to the sub-disciplines of anthropology and the capacity to apply appropriate methods when conducting anthropological research.

6. The ability to present and communicate in anthropologically appropriate ways anthropological knowledge and the results of anthropological research.

7. Knowledge of the history of anthropological thought.

"How you think about who you are right now has everything to do with what will happen to you in the future." (C.C. Carter, Chico Enterprise-Record, May 6, 1997, page 12A).

"Anthropology provides a scientific basis for dealing with the crucial dilemma of the world today: how can peoples of different appearance, mutually unintelligble languages, and dissimilar ways of life get along peaceably together? Of course, no branch of knowledge constitutes a cure-all for all the ills of mankind. ... Students who had not gone beyond the horizon of their own society could not be expected to perceive custom which was the stuff of their own thinking. The scientist of human affairs needs to know as much about the eye that sees as the object seen. Anthropology holds up a great mirror to man[kind] and lets him [and her!] look at himself in his infinite variety. This, and not the satisfaction of idle curiosity nor romantic quest, is the meaning of the anthropologist's work.... [stress in original]" Clyde Kluckhohn, 1949, Mirror For Man: The Relation of Anthropology To Modern Life, page 1 and page 10)

"By viewing ourselves in a mirror which reflects reality, we can see our past as undistorted and no longer have to peer into our future as through a glass darkly." Ronald Takaki, 1993, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America, page 427.

"The unit of survival [or adaptation] is organism plus environment. We are learning by bitter experience that the organism which destroys its environment destroys itself." (Gregory Bateson, Steps to an Ecology of Mind, 1972: 483)

"We are heading into a century in which the old gods will certainly continue to crumble. As a nation we can no longer simply see ourselves as shades of pale. The new century will be in living color, and it may often speak in languages that are unfamiliar to our ears. Women will walk fully out of the shadows of men's dreams. If we wish to build a new world, we will have to understand the way that worlds are made and how ideas can freeze into dogma" (Caryl Rivers, 1996, Slick Spins And Fractured Facts: How Cultural Myths Distort The News, page xiv).

"When the sum total of our knowledge of a particular nationality or ethnic group comes from TV programs, we may think we know all about this group when in fact we know only what a few producers have chosen to show us" (Ester Baruch, "TV: Out With It" from Parent's Journal, June-July 1996, p 24).

"Anyone who stops learning is old, whether at twenty or eighty. Anyone who keeps learning stays young. The greatest thing in life is to keep your mind young." Henry Ford [1863-1947]

"Travel is fatal to prejudice, bigotry and narrow-mindness." (Samuel Langhorn Clemens, also known as Mark Twain [1835-1910], The Innocents Abroad, 1869).

"What we know is a drop. What we don't know is an ocean." Sir Isaac Newton [1642-1727] The Wall Street Journal, November 1, 1991.

"In many crucial ways, the Earth is becoming as small as it appears to orbiting astronauts and cosmonauts. Global communications, universal trends, and common aspirations are making us more alike than we are different. Despite our rich cultural diversity, we gradually are becoming nearly one world. ... We share history. World War II tore us apart. ... We share technology. Communication satellites make it possible for millions to share the information and entertainment that's on television. Satellites have also revolutionized telephone and telefax communication. We sent reporters all over the world, but rarely were they out of reach of a telephone. We share high-speed transportation. Today, it takes less than twenty-four hours to travel between virtually any two points in the world." (Allen H. Neurath [with Jack Kelley and Juan J. Walte], 1989, Nearly One World, pages 4-6)

"The farther backward you can look, the farther forward you are likely to see." (Sir Winston Churchill [1874-1965], 1953 Nobel Laureate in Literature)

"In the field of observation, chance only favors those who are prepared." (Louis Pasteur [1822-1895])

"The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of everyday thinking." (Albert Einstein [1879-1955], 1921 Nobel Laureate in Physics, Ideas and Opinions, 1954: page 65)

"The only rational way of educating is to be an example--if one can't help it, a warning example." (Albert Einstein [1879-1955], 1921 Nobel Laureate in Physics, Ideas and Opinions, 1954: page 283)

"One of the greatest lessons that can be learned from the history of science is one of humility. Science may indeed be steadily learning more about the structure of the world, but surely what is known is exceedingly small in relation to what is unknown. There is no scientific theory today, not even a law, that may not be modified or discarded tomorrow." (Martin Gardner, 1990, The New Ambidextrous Universe: Symmetry and Asymmetry From Mirror Reflections to Superstrings, 3rd edition, page 335).

"My view is that knowledge is a rearrangement of experience, in which we put together those experiences that seem to us to belong together, and put them apart from those that do not" (Jacob Bronowski [1908-1984], The Identity of Man, 1966: 26).

"Facts are not really like boulders that have been detached and shaped and deposited exclusively by the play of forces of non-human nature. They are like flaked and chipped flints, hewn stones, bricks or briquettes. Human action has had a hand in making them what they are, and they would not be what they are if this action had not taken place. ... Facts are, in truth, exactly what is meant by the Latin word facta from which the English word is derived. They are 'things that have been made'.... (Arnold J. Toynbee [1889-1975], A Study of History: Reconsiderations, Volume 12, 1964: 250)

"The dullness of fact is the mother of fiction." (Isaac Asimov, 1962, Fact And Fancy, page 11).

"The thought of every age is reflected in its technique." (Norbert Wiener, 1961, Cybernetics: Or Control And Communication In The Animal And The Machine, page 38).

"Learning can be seen as the acquisition of information, but before it can take place, there must be interest; interest permeates all endeavors and precedes learning. In order to acquire and remember new knowledge, it must stimulate your curiosity in some way." (Richard Saul Wurman, 1989, Information Anxiety, page 138)

"I say, therefore, that we think with or through ideas and what we call thinking is generally the application of preexisting ideas to a given situation or set of facts. ...When a thing is intelligible you have a sense of participation; when a thing is unintelligible you have a sense of estrangement." (F. Schumacher, 1973, Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered, page 84)

"Interest is a sense of being involved in some process, actual or potential. ...Interest is not the same as attention. Attention is a simple response to a stimulus--either to a loud bang or (much more powerful) to a feeling of interest. Interest is selective, an expenditure of energy by the interested party. ... Memory is an internally edited record of interests (not of attention, much less of 'events')." (Henry Hay, 1972, The Amateur Magician's Handbook, pp. 2-3

"In the age of information, survival still depends on hunters and gatherers. In that modern day tribe called a corporation, it's still the survival of the fittest. And in the treacherous nineties, the fittest will certainly be the best informed. So making it safely--and prosperously--through the next quarter may well depend on having a plentiful supply of the news and information business feeds on." [Paid Advertisement for the Dow Jones Information Services in The Wall Street Journal, August 19, 1991.

"The list of female inventors includes dancers, farmers, nuns, secretaries, actresses, shopkeepers, housewives, military officers, corporate executives, schoolteachers, writers, seamstresses, refugees, royalty, and little kids. All kinds of people can and do invent. The idea that one's gender somehow precludes the possibility of pursuing any technological endeavor is not only outdated but also dangerous. In the words of 1977 Nobel Prize winner [in Physiology/Medicine] Rosalyn Yallow: 'The world cannot afford the loss of the talents of half of its people if we are to solve the many problems which beset us.'" (Ethlie Ann Vare and Greg Ptacek, 1987, Mothers of Invention: From the Bra to the Bomb, Forgotten Women and Their Unforgettable Ideas, page 17)

"Despite these dangers, I am joining the growing dialogue on gender and language because the risks of ignoring differences is greater than the danger of naming them. Sweeping something big under the rug doesn't make it go away; it trips you up and sends you sprawling when you venture across the room. Denying real differences can only compound the confusion that is already widespread in this era of shifting and re-forming relationships between women and men." (Deborah Tannen, 1990, You Just Don't Understand: Women And Men In Conversation, page 16)

"Encouraging students to trust themselves is one of the most important things a teacher can do. ... You can help the student know herself [or himself] by inspiring participation and promoting self-confidence." (Judith Kahn, 1975, The Guide To Conscious Communication, page 4)

"Communication begins with self and with others. The way we have learned about ourselves as women or as men affects how we communicate with others. This, in turn, affects others' perceptions of us and communication with us. How others see and communicate with us spirals back and influences our self-concept." (Judy Cornelia Pearson et. al, 1991, Gender & Communication [2nd edition]), page 74.

"Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic." (Clarke's Third Law in Profiles of the Future: An Inquiry into the Limits of the Possible by Arthur C. Clarke, 1984, page 26)

"The barbarous heathen are nothing more strange to us than we are to them.... Human reason is a tincture in like weight and measure infused into all our opinions and customs, what form soever they be, infinite in matter, infinite in diversity." (Michel Eyquem de Montaigne [1533-1592], Essays, page 53 [1959 paperback publication of a translation from 1603].

"It's not born in you! It happens after you're born . . .You've got to be taught to hate and fear, You've got to be taught from year to year, It's got to be drummed in your dear little ear-- You've got to be carefully taught!" (Rodgers & Hammerstein II, 1949, South Pacific in Six Plays by Rodgers & Hammerstein, pages 346-347)

"'We used to educate farmers to be farmers, factory workers to be factory workers, teachers to be teachers, men to be men, women to be women.' The future demands 'renaissance people. You can't be productive in the information age if you don't know how to talk to a diverse population, use a computer, understand a world view instead of a parochial view, write, speak.'" (In Byrd L. Jones and Robert W. Maloy, 1996, Schools For An Information Age: Reconstructing Foundations For learning And Teaching, page 15).

"Education is the acquisition of the art of the utilisation of knowledge" (Alfred North Whitehead [1861-1947], The Aims of Education, 1929: 16)

"When you ferret out something for yourself, piecing the clues together unaided, it remains for the rest of your life in some way truer than facts you are merely taught, and freer from onslaughts of doubt." Colin Fletcher, 1968, The Man Who Walked Through Time, p. 109.

"The cutting edge of knowledge is not in the known but in the unknown, not in knowing but in questioning. Facts, concepts, generalizations, and theories are dull instruments unless they are honed to a sharp edge by persistent inquiry about the unknown." (Ralph H. Thompson [1911-1987] American Educator).

"Make sure your employees [or students!] are learning something every day. Ideally, they should learn things that directly help on the job, but learning anything at all should be encouraged. The more you know, the more connections form in your brain, and the easier every task becomes. Learning creates job satisfaction and supports a person's ego and energy level" (Scott Adams, 1996, The Dilbert™ Principle: A Cubicle's-Eye View Of Bosses, Meetings, Management Fads & Other Workplace Afflictions, page 322).

"The two most engaging powers of an author [or teacher] are to make new things familiar, and familiar things new." Samuel Johnson, The Lives of the English Poets (1779-81). [A Dictionary of Literary Quotations Compiled by M. Stevens, 1990, page 95]

"...it seems plain and self-evident, yet it needs to be said: the isolated knowledge obtained by a group of specialists in a narrow field [or an individual researcher] has in itself no value whatsoever, but only in its synthesis with all the rest of knowledge and only inasmuch as it really contributes in this synthesis something toward answering the demand 'who are we?'" 1933 Nobel Laureate in Physics, Erwin Schrödinger (1887-1961)

"We were getting close to the answer and I was beginning to fly. I could feel my brain cells doing a little tap dance of delight. I was half-skipping, excitement bubbling out of me as we crossed the street. 'I love information. I love information. Isn't this great? God, it's fun...'" (The character Kinsey Milhone, in Sue Grafton, 1990, "G" Is For Gumshoe, page 277)

"My intention is not, however, to [simply] impart information, but to throw the burden of study upon you. If I succeed in teaching you to observe, my aim will be attained." Louis Aggasiz [1807-1873], Swiss-American Scientist.

"The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existing. One cannot help but be in awe when he [or she!] contemplates the mysteries of eternity, of life, of the marvelous structures of reality. It is enough if one tries merely to comprehend a little of this mystery every day. Never lose a holy curiosity." (Albert Einstein [1879-1955])

"Have you ever stopped to think how much your life depends on information? Almost everything does! While some people might succeed with more luck than brains, we all improve our chances by basing our decisions on well-considered information. For quality information, today's consistently successful decision-makers rely on a combination of mind and machinery. Getting the best combination requires understanding how the two fit together and the roles that each might play. It also requires having a personal information strategy that matches your individual information interests, problem-solving skills, and technology preference." Arno Penzias [1978 Nobel Laureate in Physics], 1989, Ideas And Information: Managing In A High-Tech World (NY: Simon & Schuster), page 9.

"Throughout the ages, technology has helped shape the facts we humans think about. As our knowledge has increased, so have our tools and the ways we employ them. Today, technology is so complex and pervasive that it dominates much of the environment in which human beings live and work. For this reason, I feel we need a better understanding of how technology affects the ways in which we now create and explore ideas." Arno Penzias [1978 Nobel Laureate in Physics], 1989, Ideas And Information: Managing In A High-Tech World (NY: Simon & Schuster), page 179-180.

"Since we cannot know all that there is to know about everything, we ought to know a little about everything" (Blaise Pascal [1623-1662]).

I. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW TO THE COURSE

A. What Does An Anthropologist Do? And please see Create Your Own Newspaper (http://crayon.net/using/links.html) as well as http://orion.csuchico.edu and A MASSIVE ANTHROPOLOGY SITE [my term for it]: http://www.unipv.it/webbio/dfantrop.htm as well as Anthropology Resources on the Internet and the local: http://www.csuchico.edu/lbib/anthropology/anthropology.html; and for "Anthropology In The News" please glance at http://www.tamu.edu/anthropology/news.html.

An understanding of the phenomenon of culture as that which differentiates human life from other life forms; an understanding of the roles of human biology and cultural processes in human behavior and human evolution.

A positive appreciation of the diversity of contemporary and past human cultures and an awareness of the value of anthropological perspectives and knowledge in contemporary society.

"Anthropology--From Greek anthropos (man) and logia (study)--is the systematic wonder about and the scientific study of humans. Wonder about humans is probably as old as man [and woman!], Homo sapiens." Morris Freilich, 1983, The Pleasure of Anthropology, page x.

B. Text(s), Assignments, and Exam
C. How to "use" this Notebook, Film Notes, and various WWW "addresses" shared with you.

"That writer does the most, who gives his [or her!] reader the most knowledge, and takes from him [or her!!] the least time." (Charles Caleb Colton [1780-1832], 1825 statement.) PS: " The palest ink is better than the best memory." (Chinese proverb)

"Connections Matter: Our brains aren't designed to retain random bits of information. We remember things by linking them to what we already know. The process is called 'elaborative encoding.' (1) A name is easy to forget when its only point of reference is a face. Lacking links to other memories, it fades within seconds. (2) As you learn facts about a person, such as her [or his] profession, her [and his] name gets embedded in a web of thoughts and impressions. If you don't know her [or him], random associations have a similar effect. (3) As the web of associations grows, so does the number of paths leading back to the name. Well-encoded memories last a lifetime." (Geoffrey Cowley and Anne Underwood, "Memory." Newsweek, June 15, 1998, page 51)

"The things taught in schools and colleges are not an education, but the means of education" and "Any time is a good time if you know what to do with it."(Ralph Waldo Emerson [1803-1882])

D. Previous Student Comments:

"What a bummer, just another G.E. course to waste your time in. ANTH 13 is anyting but that; Urbanowicz gets you to think about yourself and others in a new way." (ANTH 13 Student, Spring 1998)

"I enjoyed this class; I never thought I could learn so much from films; don't change it too much." (ANTH 13 Student, Spring 1998)

"I never had the chance to enroll in any type of anthropology class during high school, the only other similar class I took was history. After the first week or two of attending anthropology here at Chico State I realized that this [ANTH 13] was no ordinary history class. Since day one I have looked forward to all of the interesting videos and lectures about all kinds of different people. This new subject of study really motivated me to become curious about the way different cultures survive." (ANTH 13 Student, Spring 1996)

"All I have to say about your class is thank you! It is inspiring as not only a student but as a human being to see and experience the passion and love you have for anthropology. This year for the first time in my life, right around my 21st birthday, I freaked out about my future and occupation. But seeing you twice a week, standing in front of an unethusiastic bunch of college students at 9:30 in the morning and give them intriguiging lectures with authentic enthusiasm helped me more than you will ever know. Also, thank you for encouraging me to use my passion for...in my term paper. You are an awesome professor!" (ANTH 13 Student, Spring 1998)

II. CULTURE AND THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

"Anthropology provides a scientific basis for dealing with the crucial dilemma of the world today: how can peoples of different appearance, mutually unintelligble languages, and dissimilar ways of life get along peaceably together? Of course, no branch of knowledge constitutes a cure-all for all the ills of mankind. ... Students who had not gone beyond the horizon of their own society could not be expected to perceive custom which was the stuff of their own thinking. The scientist of human affairs needs to know as much about the eye that sees as the object seen. Anthropology holds up a great mirror to man[kind] and lets him [and her!] look at himself in his infinite variety. This, and not the satisfaction of idle curiosity nor romantic quest, is the meaning of the anthropologist's work.... [stress in original]" Clyde Kluckhohn, 1949, Mirror For Man: The Relation of Anthropology To Modern Life, page 1 and page 10)

A. The Concept of Culture & Basic Cultural Diversity

"Help Avoid A Failure: Learn The Culture Of A Company First. ... Just like countries, companies have unique personalities, or cultures. Someone who succeeds in one won't necessarily do well at another." The Wall Street Journal, July 14, 1998, Page B1)

B. The Sub-disciplines of Anthropology

III. THE SCOPE OF ANTHROPOLOGY/FIELD METHODS: WHAT WE DO

A. Fieldwork in the Polynesian Kingdom of Tonga and Spring 1997 sabbatical research and....
B. FILM: Comments on the Yanomamo of South America (and see http://www.evoyage.com/Aggression.htm as well as http://www.uwgb.edu/~galta/mrr/yano/yano7.htm).
C. Comments on "Cyberspace! [Please below in the electronic Notebook] and indigenous societies.

"In my first year here at Chico State I have been under almost ceaseless barrage by teachers heralding the Internet. With all the 'press' it's getting you'd think that the professors were getting paid to hype this new technology to their students. The fact of the matter is that this technology is going to play an increasingly important role in our lives. Professors realize that if their students are going to be successful, they must not be allowed to remain ignorant of this technology...." [ANTH 13 Student, Spring 1996].

IV. WHAT IS SCIENCE?/PERSPECTIVE(S): SPRADLEY & MCCURDY READINGS

"Culture And The Contemporary World" by Spradley & McCurdy, pp. 3-11
"Culture and Ethnography" by Spradley & McCurdy, pp. 13-17
"Ethnography and Culture" by James P. Spradley, pp. 18-25
"Law and Politics" by Spradley & McCurdy, pp. 267-269
"The Kayapo Resistance" by Terrence Turner, pp. 365-382

V. WORDS:

"In looking at science, life, and my fellow human beings, my mind in an undisciplined way detects the cosmic within the nitty gritty and the trivial within the infinite. I believe that deep and important issues should be approached with sufficient good humor to keep us from regarding our mutable opinions as eternal truths. While not ignoring the real tragedy in the world, I feel it important to concentrate on hope. Given the existential dilemma of forever unanswered questions about our universe, I believe that joy is more fun than sadness and no further from the elusive reality of things. In short, it should be possible to be profound without being boring or being afflicted with malaise [stress added]" (Harold J. Morowitz, 1979, The Wine Of Life And Other Essays On Societies, Energy & Living Things, page ix-x).

SPECIFIC TERMS FROM SPRADLEY & McCURDY's "GLOSSARY" pp. 401-407.

AGRICULTURE: A subsistence strategy involving intensive farming of permanent fields through the use of such means as the plow, irrigation, and fertilizer.

APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY: Any use of anthropological knowledge to influence social interaction, to maintain or change social institutions, or to direct the course of cultural change.

CLAN: A kinship group normally comprising several lineages; its members are related by a unilineal descent rule, but it is too large to enable members to trace actual biological links to all other members.

CULTURE: The knowledge that is learned, shared, and used by people to interpret experience and generate behavior.

ECOLOGY: The study of the way organisms interact with each other within an environment.

ETHNOCENTRISM: A mixture of belief and feeling that one's own way of life is desirable and actually superior to others.

ETHNOGRAPHY: The task of discovering and describing a particular culture.

HORTICULTURE: A kind of subsistence strategy involving semi-intensive, usually shifting, agricultural practices. Slash-and-burn farming is a common example of horticulture.

KINSHIP: The complex system of social relations based on marriage (affinity) and birth (consanguinity).

LANGUAGE: The system of cultural knowledge used to generate and interpret speech.

POLITICAL SYSTEM: The organization and process of making and carrying out public policy according to cultural categories and rules.

SLASH AND BURN: A form of horticulture in which wild land is cleared and burned over, farmed, then permitted to lie fallow and revert to its wild state.

Napoleon Chagnon points out that the Yanomamo population is probably around 10,000. These were distributed in approximately 125 widely scattered villages, with the population in each village ranging from 40 to 250 individuals. ..."Yanomamo culture, in its major focus, reverses the meaning of 'good' and 'desirable' as phrased in the ideal postulates of the Judaic-Christian tradition. A high capacity for rage, a quick flash point, and a willingness to use violence to obtain one's ends are considered desirable traits. Much of the behavior of the Yanomamo can be described as brutal, cruel, treacherous, in the value-laden terms of our own vocabulary. The Yanomamo themselves...do not at all appear to be mean and treacherous. As individuals they seem to be people playing their own cultural game....this is a study of a fierce people who engage in chronic warfare. It is also a study of a system of controls that usually hold in check the drive towards annihilation." (Napoleon Chagnon, Yanomamo: The Fierce People, 1968) ... "The most distinctive feature of Yanomamo technology is that it is very direct. No tool or technique is complicated enough to require specialized labor or raw materials. Each village, therefore, can produce every item of material culture it requires from the jungle resources around it. ... The jungle provides numerous varieties of food, both animal and vegetable. ... Although the Yanomamo spend almost as much time hunting as they do gardening, the bulk of their diet comes from foods that are cultivated. Perhaps 85 percent or more of their diet consists of domesticated rather than wild foods...." (Napoleon Chagnon, The Fierce People, 1968: 21-33)

FILM MISC: Alliances, feasts, trading: "Alliances between villages are the product of a developmental sequence that involves casual trading, mutual feasting, and finally the exchange of women. ... The feast and the alliance can and often do fail to establish stable, amicable relationships between sovereign villages. ... Yanomamo warfare proper is the raid."

WHY STUDY PEOPLE?: "At the lower end of the scale of salt users [for example!] is a tribe called the Yanomamo, who dwell in the forests of southern Venezuela and consist of an estimated 20,000 people who live by subsistence farming in small villages. They are one of the few remaining tribes unaffected [!] by Western culture. ... The Yanomamo eat virtually no salt at all. Researchers observed 46 members of this tribe who were in their 40s, and found they had an average blood pressure of only 103/65. Another Amazonian tribe, the Carajas, take in little salt, calculated to be half a gram a day, and the average blood pressure of ten of their middle-aged people was slightly lower at 101/69. (The longevity of these people is not recorded, but if there is a link between salt, blood pressure and lifespand then we can assume they will probably all live to be a hundred.) John Emsley, 1998, Molecules At An Exhibition: Portraits Of Intriguiging Materials in Everyday Life, page 38)

NOTE: "Anthropologists continually seek better ways to record and translate the beliefs and traditions of human cultures. The emergence of ethnographic film-making in this century has given humankind unprecedented opportunities to experience vicariously the details of life in unfamiliar, often distant and isolated places." Timothy Asch, "The Ethics Of Ethnographic Film-Making" in Film As Ethnography, 1992, edited by Peter Crawford and David Turton (Manchester) [CSUC: GN/347/F55/1992], pp. 196-204, page 196.

ALSO NOTE: "Tensions are rising in Venezuela's Amazon rain forests, where Indians and environmentalists are clashing with mining companies and government officials who wish to exploit some of the richest gold deposits in Latin America and build towns and tourist hotels in the wilderness. Rapid economic development 'is going to mean the death of the jungles and of the indigenous people,' said Pemon leader Jose Luis Gonzalez." (San Francisco Chronicle, August 11, 1998, page A14).

TRAVEL CHANGES: "...has reached its climax in our day. Formerly travel required long planning, large expense, and great investments of time. It involved risks to health or even to life. The traveler was active. Now he [or she] became passive. Instead of an athletic exercise, travel became a spectator sport. This change can be described in a word. It was the decline of the traveler and the rise of the tourist." (Daniel Boorstin, 1961, The Image or What Happened to the American Dream; 1964 edition entitled The Image: A Guide to Pseudoevents in America, pages 84-85.)

"The ability of anthropologists to get us to take what they say seriously has less to do with either a factual look or an air of conceptual elegance than it has to do with their capacity to convince us what they say is a result of their having actually penetrated (or, if you prefer, been penetrated by) another form of life, one way or another, truly 'being there.' And that, persuading us that this offstage miracle has occured, is where the writing comes in." Clifford Geertz (1988) Works And Lives: The Anthropologist As Author

"What is the difference in the approach of a good reporter, and a good field anthropologist? They have much in common--in the obstacles they must surmount to meet the people they want to meet, in the care they must take in choosing their informants, and in their regard for accurate recording of what was said and done. ... The difference arises from the purposes for which the two accounts are intended. The reporter must be interesting. The anthropologist is obliged to record the tiresome along with the flashy. The reporter must always think of what will engage his audience, of what will be inteligible to them in terms of their life ways. The first responsibility of the anthropologist is to set down events as seen by the people he [or she] is studying" Clyde Kluckhohn, 1949, Mirror For Man: The Relation of Anthropology To Modern Life (pages 299-300).

I. WHAT DOES AN ANTHROPOLOGIST DO FOR A LIVING? CULTURE & ETHNOGRAPHY AND...(Please see Europe http://www.culture.fr/gvpda.htm [20,000 year old cave paintings] as well as North American Archaeology [http://www.cs.mtsu.edu/~gdennis/nastates.html] and the Society for California Archaeology [http://www.scanet.org/] as well as "Into The World Of Anthropology" (at http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/b-sklar/basic387.html) and "Evolution in China" (http://www.cruzio.com/~cscp/index.htm).

A knowledge of the substantive data pertinent to the several sub disciplines of anthropology and familiarity with major issues relevant to each.

Familiarity with the forms of anthropological literature and basic data sources and knowledge of how to access such information.

Knowledge of the methodology appropriate to the sub-disciplines of anthropology and the capacity to apply appropriate methods when conducting anthropological research.

A. Contemporary American Culture
B. "100 percent American" (please see below for this week in this Notebook).
C. Interested in your instructor? (Home page and lengthy résumé)
D. Interested in the Department of Anthropology at CSU, Chico?

II. ON TRAVEL AND THE GROWTH OF ANTHROPOLOGY

A. What Is Culture?
B. Human Biological Diversity
C. Taxonomy and the Primate Order
D. ANY Significance to: O, T, T, F, F, S, S, E, N, ?.
E. Significance of: T, F, S, E, T, T, F, S, E, T.
F. Significance of: 1,2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,31,37,41,43,47.
G.Significance of: H, He, Li, Be, B, C.

"The scholar, in whatever field, is concerned to find out all he [or she] can, to discover or reveal the pattern which underlies the phenomena, and to frame the most coherent possible explanation of what he [or she!] has found." (John Wolfenden, 1963, in The Language of Sciences, page 32).

"In addition to solving puzzles, science also builds understanding by revealing the properties of the world and the relationships between them. Here again, the methods that scientists employ find widespread use in everyday life. From infancy onward, each person measures and classifies the properties of unfamiliar objects in order to integrate them into a larger worldview--from a ten-month-old learning to stack blocks, to Charles Darwin cataloging specimens aboard the Beagle." Arno Penzias [1978 Nobel Laureate in Physics], 1989, Ideas And Information: Managing In A High-Tech World (NY: Simon & Schuster), page 177.

III. APPROPRIATE VISUALS

"Myth and rumor come first. People don't believe it until they see it with their own eyes. Then suddenly there it is, and afterward nobody even remembers we disbelieved it. It seems ridiculous to have discounted it. It's all hubris. We think ourselves as the chosen ones, the supreme beings on the whole planet. We think we own the place, but we don't know the first thing about it." John Darnton, 1996, Neanderthal [Random House], page 51.

A. FILM: The Man Hunters

"Human being are the result of the same evolutionary process that produced the entire vast diversity of living things. Yet we cannot help but think of ourselves as somehow significantly 'different' from the rest of nature." (Ian Tattersall, 1998, Becoming Human: Evolution And Human Uniqueness, page 78)

"Fossils discovered during expeditions in the 1960s and 1994 belong to the oldest swinger ever found--a large ape-like creature that also may be the oldest known relative of humans and apes, experts say. The fossils from Uganda are dated to at least 20.6 million years ago. ... Apes and humans are beliueved to have evolved from a common ancestor and diverged into separate groups around 6 million years ago. The oldest fossils of human origin split from apes 3 m illion to 4 million years ago." (USA Today, April 18, 1997, page 1D).

B. Brief Introduction to Charles Darwin (1809-1882) (and please see: http://books.mirror.org/gb.darwin.html)

IV. WORKING FOR A LIVING AND PERSPECTIVE[S] CONTINUED:

"I don't think being a son or daughter qualifies you to do what your parents do." (Leonard S. Riggio, born 1941: Chief Executive of Barnes & Noble, Inc.)

"The future is something which everyone reaches at the rate of sixty minutes an hour, whatever he [or she] does, whoever he [or she!] is." C.S. Lewis (1898-1963)

A. Anthropological Activities.
B. Campus Resources (and please see http://www.csuchico.edu/plc/welcome2.html [Career & Placement Center] as well as http://www.csuchico.edu/cont/ids/index.html [Internships])!

V. TO THE FUTURE? and SPRADLEY & MCCURDY READINGS:

"Cultivating the Tropical Rainforest" by Richard K. Reed, pp. 120-129
"Reciprocity and the Power of Giving" by Lee Cronk, pp. 157-163
"Using Anthropology" David W. McCurdy, pp. 383-394

SPECIFIC TERMS FROM SPRADLEY & McCURDY's "GLOSSARY" pp. 401-407.

CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT: The categories and rules people use to classify and explain their physical environment.

DESCENT: A Rule of relationship that ties people together on the basis of reputed common ancestry.

DIFFUSION: The passage of a cultural category, culturally defined behavior, or culturally produced artifact from one society to another through borrowing.

ECOLOGY: The study of the way organisms interact with each other within an environment.

EXOGAMY: Marriage outside any designated group.

HUNTING AND GATHERING: A subsistence strategy involving the foraging of wild, naturally occurring foods.

INCEST TABOO: The cultural rule that prohibits sexual intercourse and marriage between specified classes of relatives.

INNOVATION: A recombination of concepts from two or more mental configurations into a new pattern that is qualitatively different from existing forms.

NUCLEAR FAMILY: A family composed of a married couple and their children.

PRODUCTION: The process of making something.

RITE OF PASSAGE: A series of rituals that move individuals from one social state or status to another.

SEXUAL INEQUALITY: Inequality based on gender.

"Our solid American citizen awakens in a bed built on a pattern which originated in the Near East but which was modified in Northern Europe before it was transmitted to America. He [or she] throws back covers made from cotton, domesticated in India, or linen, domesticated in the Near East, or wool from sheep, also domesticated in the Near East, or silk, the use of which was discovered in China. All of these materials have been spun and woven by processes invented in the Near East. He slips into his moccasins, invented by the Indians of the eastern woodlands, and goes to the bathroom, whose fixtures are a mixture of European and American inventions, both of recent date. He takes off his pajamas, a garment invented in India, and washes with soap invented by the ancient Gauls. He then shaves, a masochistic rite which seems to have been derived from either Sumer or ancient Egypt.

Returning to the bedroom, he removes his clothes from a chair of southern European type and proceeds to dress. He puts on garments whose form originally derived from the skin clothing of the nomads of the Asiatic steppes, puts on shoes made from skins tanned by a process invented in ancient Egypt and cut to a pattern derived from the classical civilizations of the Mediterranean, and ties around his neck a strip of bright-colored cloth which is a vestigial survival of the shoulder shawls worn by the seventeenth-century Croatians. Before going out for breakfast he glances through the windows, made of glass invented in Egypt, and if it is raining puts on overshoes made of rubber discovered by the Central American Indians and takes an umbrella, invented in southeastern Asia. Upon his head he puts a hat made of felt, a material invented in the Asiatic steppes.

On his way to breakfast he stops to buy a paper, paying for it with coins, an ancient Lydian invention. At the restaurant a whole new series of borrowed elements confronts him. His plate is made of a form of pottery invented in China. His knife is of steel, an alloy first made in southern India, his fork a medieval Italian invention, and his spoon a derivative of a Roman original. He begins breakfast with an orange, from the eastern Mediterranean, a cantaloupe from Persia, or perhaps a piece of African watermelon. With this he has coffee, an Abyssinian plant, with cream and sugar. Both the domestication of cows and the idea of milking them originated in the Near East, while sugar was first made in India. After his fruit and first coffee he goes on to waffles, cakes made by a Scandinavian technique from wheat domesticated in Asia Minor. Over these he pours maple syrup, invented by the Indians of the eastern Woodlands. As a side dish he may have the eggs of a species of bird domesticated in Indo-China, or thin strips of the flesh of an animal domesticated in Eastern Asia which have been salted and smoked by a process developed in northern Europe.

When our friend has finished eating he settles back to smoke, an American Indian habit, consuming a plant domesticated in Brazil in either a pipe, derived from the Indians of Virginia, or a cigarette, derived from Mexico. If he is hardy enough he may even attempt a cigar, transmitted to us from the Antilles by way of Spain. While smoking, he reads the news of the day, imprinted in characters invented by the ancient Semites upon a material invented in China by a process invented in Germany. As he absorbs the accounts of foreign troubles, if he is a good conservative citizen, thank a Hebrew deity in an Indo-European language that he is 100 percent American."

"In 1856, at the very time Charles Darwin was writing The Origin of Species, which would popularize the revolutionary concept of evolution worldwide, the fossilized remains of a stocky, powerful, human-like creature were discovered in a German valley called Neander Tal." (Erik Trinkaus and Pat Shipman, 1993, The Neanderthals: Changing The Image of Mankind [CSUC: GN/285/T73/1993].

PALEOANTHROPOLOGY = the science of placing the "chain" or "tree" of the pieces together. It "has been one of the most argumentative of sciences since its beginning. Experts who agree [on the exact sequence of fossils] are rare." "Close to three million years ago on a campsite near the east shore of Kenya's spectacular Lake Turkana, formerly Lake Rudolf, a primitive hand picked up a water-smoothed stone, and with a few skillful strikes transformed it into an implement. What was once an accident of nature was now a piece of deliberate technology, to be used to fashion a stick for digging up roots, or to slice the flesh off a dead animal. Soon discarded by its maker, the stone tool still exists, an unbreakable link with our ancestors; together with many others, that tool is preserved in the National Museum of Kenya in Nairobi. It is a heart-quickening thought that we share the same genetic heritage with the hands that shaped the tool that we can now hold in our own hands, and with the mind that decided to make the tool that our minds can now contemplate" (Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin, Origins, 1977: 8 [CSUChico GN/31.2/L43/1977]).

Charles F. Hockett (1973: 387) Man's Place in Nature. [CSUChico GN/31/H6] ="range" of cranial capacity: Modern Man [Homo sapiens] 850 to 1700+ cubic centimeters; Neanderthal 1200 to 1640 cc.; Homo erectus 775 to 1225 cc.; Australopithecus 435 to 700 cc.; Gorillas 340 to 752 cc.; and Chimpanzees 320 to 420 cc.

"Apart from several Neanderthals unearthed in Europe, the earliest discoveries of human fossils were made in Java toward the close of the last century. After finding a skullcap and later a femur at Trinil, Eugene Dubois named Pithecanthropus (now Homo) erectus in 1894. Since then, many more bones have come to light, in Africa as well as Asia. ... Assemblages from Olduvai Gorge and the Turkana basin provide much information about the morphology and behavior of populations inhabiting East Africa more than 1.6 million years ago. These people are similar to Homo erectus from China and Indonesia, and all the fossils can be grouped in one species." (G.P. Rightmire, "Homo erectus and Later Middle Pleistocene Humans" in 1988 Annual Review of Anthropology, pp. 239-256) [CSUChico GN/1/B52/1988]).

PLEASE NOTE THE FOLLOWING:

"Evolution does not make predictions, species don't know where they're going, humans did not have to evolve. In fact, if we were to rewind the tape to ten million years ago, when apes dominated the primate world, there would be no assurance that humans would evolve again. But humans have evolved, we are here today. Like no other species that has ever lived, we control the life of all living things--including ourselves. When we understand and accept that we are part of the continuum of life, we will be in a better position to make informed choices--choices which will ensure a better world for all species. Extinction is forever. We must not let it happen. Education is the great liberator. It frees us to think objectively. My studies of human evolution have taught me to respect the natural world. They have also taught me that all humans have a common origin and, therefore, a common destiny--the outcome of which will be determined by humankind itself. We do have the capacity to make the future a long and fruitful one, if only we will take the time to learn who we are and how we fit into the natural world. (Donald C. Johanson, 1993, from the "Forward" to Ian Tattersall's 1993, The Human Odyssey: Four Million Years of Human Evolution (Prentice Hall), page xiii.

AND NOTE FROM JUNE 16, 1998: "An Old Molar Gives China A Bone To Pick With History Books" by Ian Johnson in The Wall Street Journal of June 16, 1998: "In the backbiting world of paleontology, scientists have fought over a lot of controversial ideas, but they usually agree on one point: Humans evolved in Africa and migrated to the rest of the world. Now, led by Dr. Huang, scientists in symbol-hungry China are challenging that certainty with a theory of their own: The ascent of man began in China." (Page 1)

AND NOTE THESE WORDS: "The details of the evolutionary process are as hotly debated today as ever, and it would be pointless to try to represnt all sides of this multifaceted argument here." ( Ian Tattersall, 1998, Becoming Human: Evolution And Human Uniqueness, page 99)

I. CULTURE & ETHNOGRAPHY (CONT.) & Monkeys, Apes, and Man VTAPE (and see the Wisconsin Primate research site at http://www.primate.wisc.edu/pin/) or the University of California, Davis at http://www.crprc.ucdavis.edu/crprc/homepage.html).

The ability to present and communicate in anthropologically appropriate ways anthropological knowledge and the results of anthropological research.

Knowledge of the history of anthropological thought.

II. ON TRAVEL AND THE GROWTH OF ANTHROPOLOGY and Darwin Cont. (1809- 1882) (and please see: http://www.wonderland.org/Works/Charles-Darwin/ as well as Darwin's Home: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/tring/tring.html) not to mention "Darwin Takes A Drubbing" (http://www.abcnews.com/sections/science/DailyNews/evolution980617.html) as well as the "Scopes Trial" of 1925 (http://www.crayton.com/~randl/scopes.htm).

"Thomas Jefferson [1743-1826] is very often cited as the 'father' of American archaeology, and he certainly attempted one of the first archaeological explanations of the question ["Who Got here First?"] when he wrote in his famous 'Notes on Virginia' (1787) about an Indian mound that he had excavated many years before. However, his strongest evidence to support his belief in an Asian origin (via the Bering Strait) of the Native Americans was from his study of Indian languages. He cited the diversity of these languages as proof that they had been here a long time." (Stephen William, 1992, "Who Got To America First?" reprinted in Anthropology Explored: The Best Of Smithsonian Anthro Notes, 1998, edited by Ruth O. Selig and Marilyn R. London, pages 141-149, page 144)

"The farther backward you can look, the farther forward you are likely to see." Sir Winston Churchill [1874-1965], 1953 Nobel Prize Winner in Literature

CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING about a child, born May 5, 1997: "Like no generation before, Alyssa's enters a consumer culture, surrounded by logos, labels, and ads almost from the moment of birth. As an infant, Alyssa may wear Sesame Street diapers and miniature pro baskeball jerseys. By the time she's 20 months old, she will start to recognize some of the thousands of brands flashed in front of her each day. At age 7 [in the year 2004], she will see some 20,000 TV commercials a year. By the time she's 12 [in the year 2009], she will have her own entry in the massive data banks of marketers. Multiply Alyssa by 30 million--the number of babies born in this country since 1990--and you have the largest generation to flood the market since their baby boom parents. More impressive than their numbers, though, is their wealth [stress added]." (Business Week, June 30, 1997, page 62)

III. SPRADLEY & MCCURDY READINGS:

"Lessons From The Field" by George Gmelch, pp. 44-55
"Teleconditioning and the Postmodern Classroom" by Conrad Phillip Kottak, pp. 93-98
"Baseball Magic" by George Gmelch, pp. 320-329

NOTE FROM JUNE 1997 and an article in USA Today. "Fossils may be from new hominid species" which reported the following: "Paleontologists working at a cave in Spain have found 780,000-year-old fossils of what they say is a new species on the human family tree. ... Until now, the oldest fossils with modern facial features were only 130,000 years old from sites in the Middle East. ... But assigning a new species will be controversial because it shakes up the current human evolutionary tree." (Tim Friend, page 1A).

PRIMATES = taxonomic term which is always capitalized and is a fixed plural. "The primates are distinguished from most of the other order within the eutherian infraclass by their adaptation, past or present, to an arboreal way of life. Seven features, all related to an arboreal existence, identify the primate heritage in Man" (M. Harris, 1971, Culture, Man, and Nature, pp. 19-22): #1} Prehensile limbs; #2} Specialized function of the forelimb; #3} Visual Acuity; #4} Small number of offspring per birth; #5} Prolongation of gestation and infancy; #6} Complexity of social behavior; and #7} Enlargement of the brain.

WHY STUDY PRIMATES? = "A decade-long baboon study indicates that lecithin, a soybean extract used in many processed foods, can delay and perhaps even prevent alcohol cirrhosis of the liver." R. Cowen, Science News, December 1, 1990: 340; also, "A weakened, but still living virus may be the most powerful and protective AIDS-type vaccine yet tested in monkeys, but researchers say it could take years to determine if such a vaccine is safe for humans" (The Chico Enterprise-Record, 18 December 1992, page 3B). In January 1996, we read the following: "...three weeks after receiving a risky infusion of baboon marrow that doctors hope will save his life" an AIDS patient left a hospital; his body "has adopted the baboon cells, which are naturally resistant to the AIDS virus" (Reno Gazette-Journal, January 5, 1996, page 8A).

AND: "Scientists have developed the first DNA vaccine found to prevent rabies in tests on monkeys. If it turns out to work in humans, it could help prevent some of the more than 40,000 deaths from rabies worldwide each year [or ~109 per day!]...." (USA Today, August 4, 1998, page 8D)

CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING: "Evidence gleaned from twin and adoption studies over the past 20 years has led scientists to theorize that inheritance shapes various broad aspects of individual personality. Now, researchers assert that they have cornered for the first time a gene that participates in shaping a specific personality trait" (Science News, January 6, 1996, page 4). PLEASE CONSIDER A FOLLOWING INTERPRETATION ON GENETIC RESEARCH: "The use of genetic information to exclude high-risk people from health care by denying coverage or charging prohibitive rates will limit or nullify the anticipated benefits of genetic research" (Chico Enterprise-Record, January 1996, page 5C).

NOTE: In Atlanta, Georgia: "The nation's largest primate research center is bringing together neuroscientists, geneticists and behavior experts [Anthropologists!] to shed new light on human evolution: Using our closest living relatives - the apes - to explain how human cognition and behavior evolved." (The Chico Enterprise Record, May 11, 1998, page 1)

NOTE: There are approximately 5.75 billion people on the planet and population is increasing by approximately 100,000,000 people per year [SF Chronicle December 28, 1995, page D2] or ~1.7% per year; given that 1 year = 365.25 days = 8,766 hours = 525,960 minutes, therefore 100,000,000/525,960 = means that the population of the planet is increasing by approximately 189 people a minute. For this 50 minute class, please note that this means that the world will have had a NET INCREASE (births-minus-deaths) of 9,450 individual over this 50-minute class period!

PLEASE NOTE: "According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census, the resident population of the United States, projected to 11 August 1998 is 270,331,934 [http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/popclock]. California has approximately ~32,000,000 residents (or ~12% of the total): roughly speaking, one-out-of-every-eight Americans lives in California, The US Census Bureau predicts that "the population of the U.S. ...will reach 383 million by 2050 and keep growing" (Business Week, August 9, 1993, page 20).

NOTE on the San Francisco Bay Area: "Today, more than 280,000 people travel across the [Bay] bridge each weekday, most of them driving alone. And by the time the new eastern span opens in 2003, traffic is expected to be much worse. The amount of time people waste sitting in backups is expected to increase by 250 percent by 2020, according to the Metropolitan Transportation Commission regional forecast. 'That means if you spend 20 minutes a day in traffic jams now, it'll be an hour and 10 minutes by 2020,' said Stuart Cohen, associate director of the Bay Area Transportation Choices Forum [stress added]. (San Francisco Chronicle, August 10, 1998, page A10)

Question: Will California's population be approximately 45,960,000 by the year 2050 (or 12% of the USA)? What will the population of Chico be by 2050? (Or 2030? or 2010? or next year?!) What is the "carrying capacity" of any environment?

"The [1937] Hungarian Nobel Prize winner [in Physiology/Medicine], Szent-Györgyi [von Nagyrapolt], once said that a scientist should see what everybody else has seen and then think what nobody has thought. Nobody did this better than Charles Darwin, who first realized that the evolution of life took place by Natural Selection. Darwin taught us all to see more clearly what everyone had seen, and Darwin also taught us to think, along with him, what no one else had thought. No branch of science is more dominated by a single theory, by a single great idea, than is the whole of biology by the idea of evolution by Natural Selection." (J. Livingston and L. Sinclair, 1967, Darwin and the Galapagos)

"He was an Englishman who went on a five-year voyage when he was young and then retired to a house in the country, not far from London. He wrote an account of his voyage, and then he wrote a book setting down his theory of evolution, based on a process he called natural selection, a theory that provided the foundation for modern biology. He was often ill and never left England again." (John P. Wiley, Jr., 1998, "Expressions: The Visible Link." Smithsonian, June, pages 22-24, page 22)

The concept of CHANGE is definitely vital to an understanding of Darwin, whether you are reading Darwin himself, reading about him, or discussing him. In 1859 Darwin published On The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Please note the changes Darwin made in the SIX editions of the same volume during his lifetime (as calculated by Morse Peckham [Editor], 1959, The Origin Of Species By Charles Darwin: A Variorum Text):

YEAR	EDITION	PUBLISHED VOLUMES	DELETED SENTENCES	RE-WRITTEN	ADDED	TOTAL	% CHANGE
1859	1st	1,250				3,878
1860	2nd	3,000	9	483	30	3,899	7%
1861	3rd	2,000	33	617	266	4,132	14%
1866	4th	1,500	36	1,073	435	4,531	21%
1869	5th	2,000	178	1,770	227	4,580	29%
1872	6th	3,000	63	1.669	571	5,088	~21-29%

In the 5th edition of 1869, Darwin used (for the first time) the famous phrase (borrowed from Herbert Spencer [1820-1903]): "Survival of the Fittest." In the 1872 edition, "On" was dropped from the title. In 1859, Darwin only had the following phrase about human beings: "In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."

In the 2nd edition of 1860 Darwin also wrote the following:

"Thus, from the war of nature, from famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the production of the higher animals, directly follows. There is a grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator [STRESS added] into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being evolved."

INCIDENTALLY, in his 1839 publication The Voyage Of The Beagle, Darwin wrote the following:

"Among the scenes which are deeply impressed on my mind, none exceed in subliminity the primeval forests undefaced by the hand of man; whether those of Brazil, where the powers of Life are predominant, or those of Tierra del Fuego, where Death and Decay prevail. Both are temples filled with the varied productions of the God of Nature:--no one can stand in these solitudes unmoved, and not feel that there is more in man than the mere breath of his body [STRESS added]" 1839, page 436)

IF YOU ARE INTERESTED in additional Darwin information, please direct your browser to http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/Darwin/DarwinSem-S95.html to read the following:

The paper deals with some of the scientific research of Charles R. Darwin (1809-1882), specifically his monumental 1859 publication entitled On The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. This paper also points out the "human" side of this most noted of human beings and Darwin's ideas are presented in the context of his times. Today, Darwin's theory of "natural selection" is hopefully well known but how did the culture of his times influence his ideas and the development and acceptance of his theory? What happened before Darwin published Origin and what came after his numerous other publications? Charles Darwin was an extremely important individual for a variety of reasons: the data he collected, the experiments he conducted, and the theories he proposed influenced a variety of disciplines, from anthropology to zoology as well as ecology, geology, and the general social sciences. His influence continues to be condemned, supported, and debated after almost 150 years. [168 words]

A virtually identical paper to this one with additional Darwin papers by Graduate Students at CSU, Chico, also appears at http://www.csuchico.edu/anth/CASP/1996.html

SOME WORDS BY TO CONSIDER: "Darwin's theory of human evolution caused a great perturbation in man's self-image. For thousands of years Western man [AND HERE the author means men AND women!] had envisioned himself as existing apart from nature. Evolutionary thought not only revealed man's primate status but placed him [or all of us!] right in the middle of the natural world. For the last hundred or so years, that concept has been working its way from the centers of learning through society at large. It is a very painful notion. To be suddenly removed as a very special child of the Creator and placed in ther zoo with all the other animals is a traumatic experience. Human society has not recovered from the shock. ... If we, as a society, are still uneasy about our primate status, it is an understandable malaise. Our position has eroded over the past few hundred years from being the center of the universe to being one more species on a small planet orbiting a medium-sized star in one galaxy out of the multitude of galaxies that exist in the universe. It is from this humble starting point that we must begin to recreate love, beauty, and truth. It is a truly gargantuan job that leave us little time to monkey around and certainly does not permite us simply to ape the intellectual attitudes of our predecessors [stress added]" (Harold J. Morowitz, 1979, The Wine Of Life And Other Essays On Societies, Energy & Living Things, pages 133-134).

"The Galápagos Islands straddle the Equator, 600 miles west of Ecuador. HMS Beagle arrived there on September 15, 1835. Now almost four years away from England, the Beagle had just come from surveying down the Brazilian coast, through the Strait of Magellan at the southern tip of the continent, and up the coast of Peru. Charles Darwin was only 26 years old. Judging from his journal and his later comments, he had not yet begun to think about what he would eventually call 'the species question.' Darwin was impressed by 'the strange Cyclopean scene.' ... He also found some strange birds. For their role in his thinking about evolution, they are now referred to as 'Darwin's finches.' ... On Darwin's last day in the Galápagos, the official supervising the nearby British penal colony declared that he could tell on which island a tortoise originated by its distinctive shell pattern. 'I did not for some time pay sufficient attention to this statement,' Darwin wrote, 'and I had already partially mingled together the collections from two of the islands.' ... Later he wrote that the distribution of Galápagos animals, combined with the similarities between South American fossils and living species in the same region, were 'the factual origin of all my views.' Although the fossils nagged at him from the beginning, other naturalists back home in England had to point out the significance of the finches. In time, Darwin would write of the Galápagos in the 1839 edition of his Journal of Researches: 'The natural history of these islands is eminently curious, and well deserves attention. Here, both in space and time, we seem to be brought somewhere near to that great fact--that mystery of mysteries--the first appearance of new beings on this earth" [stress added]." Michael Sims, 1997, Darwin's Orchestra: An Almanac of Nature in History and the Arts (NY: Henry Holt), page 321-322.

"1997 was warmest year yet. Scientists say people are partly to blame." (San Francisco Chronicle, January 9, 1998, page A3)

"Island Nations Say Global Warming Drowning Their Homes. In an urgent plea for help, island states at a summit on the Earth's future told an alarming tale Tuesday [June 24, 1997] of the here and now: The seas may already be encroaching on their fragile lands. ... The United States, with 5 percent of the world's population emits more than 20 percent of the world's man-made carbon dioxide. ... Micronesia is not alone. SMimilar anectdotal reports have come in from such Pacific island groups as the Marshalls, Kiribati, and the Cartaret atoll off Papua New Guinea. Many islanders blame global warming. Islanders also say they believe violent ocean storms have increased in frequency, another predicted effect of global warming." (Chico Enterprise-Record, June 25, 1997, page 5A).

"The federal government and the electronics industry agreed Thursday to fix an environmental problem that is found in almost every American home - and one that almost nobody knows about. Television sets, like many other modern electronic applicances, need a dribble of electricity whether they are on or not. That make every set responsible for a small but steady emission of carbon dioxide, a byproduct of making electricity and the main culprit in global warming." (The Sacramento Bee, January 9, 1998, page A6)

"FDA Plans to approve Genzyme Product That Is Used To Replace Knee Cartilege. ... A small sample of a patient's own cartilege is sent away to a Genzyme laboratory, where technicians use a proprietary process to grow millions of cells. The cells are then used by a surgeon to plug defects in knee cartilage due to sports injuries or other causes." (The Wall Street Journal, June 23, 1997, page B11)

"Since FDA approval, insurance plans covering 130 million Americans offer some reimbursement for implants. ... The San Francisco 49ers' team physician, Michael Dillingham, has performed cartilage implants on six-to-eight patients.... 'Let's be humble. This is the beginning,' he says. Implanted cartilage 'doesn't become 100% normal tissue. But it's better than what we have." (The Wall Street Journal, July 27, 1998, page B1)

"Scientists are taking the first steps to see if organs like hearts or livers can be grown inside the human body using a new tissue replacement technique, a bioengineering company said yesterday. ... The company said the technology has already been used to grown new livers in rats and dogs and also to generate heart muscles in animals with diseased hearts." (The San Francisco Chronicle, June 24, 1998, page A17).

"The numbers defy the imagination: 1 million children killed every year, 200 million people afflicted. Malaria is steadily gaining resistance to medicine's scant arsenal of drugs. Although Americans think of malaria as a Third World disease, the mosquitoes that carry it are found in North America and could easily become infected with drug-resistant strains." (Business Week, June 2, 1997)

"SÃO Paulo, Brazil. The markets that most excite the world's automakers these days are not in the United States, Japan or Germany, but in cities like this. It is impossible to find a parking space here, and daily traffic jams last for hours. ... There are already 4.5 million cars in SÃO Paulo, more than twice the 2.1 million in New York City, which has about as many people. The number here is rising by about 1,000 a day. ... Even SÃO Paulo, roughly tied with New York now in the U.N. listings as the world's second largest after Tokyo, will probably be overtaken in the next two decades by four impoverished cities growing even more rapidly: Bombay, Lagos, Shanghai and Jakarta. All four already have terrible traffic problems." (Keith Bradsher, "In The Biggest, Booming Cities, a Car Population Problem." The New York Times, May 11, 1997, page 4E)

"A mouse study has found the firmest animal evidence yet that cellular telephones may cause cancer, and suggest that more research needs to be done before scientists can say for certain that the portable devices are safe. In the 18-month study, mice exposed to radio signals similar to those produced by cellular phones were twice as likely to develop cancer as their unexposed counterparts. ... Since cellular phones first came into use, people have worried about their possible health effects. At least eight people have sued, claiming that using the phones caused brain cancer or other medical problems. But, for lack of scientific evidence, none of the lawsuits has ever made it to court. The new study won't change that, because it doesn't come close to showing that cellular phones are hazardous. It does raise questions that need to be investigated before the devices can be declared completely safe. ... 'The biggest hazzard is [also] the increased rate of automobile accidents from using (cell phones) while driving....'" (The Chico Enterprise-Record, May 10, 1997, page 1C).

"The latest figures from the Census Bureau confirm the bad news: The income gap between rich and poor in the U.S. continues to widen. And the increased importance of education means that college graduates possess an enormous edge in the job market, while high school graduates lag behind" [Business Week, July 22, 1996, page 74].

"...organisms, and their microbial cousins, have an influence on life that is wholly disproportionate to their dimensions and invisibility. First, consider the difference in size between some of the very tiniest and the very largest creatures on earth. A small bacterium weighs as little as 0.000000000001 grams. A blue whale weighs about 100,000,000 grams. Yet a bacterium can kill a whale" (Bernard Dixon, 1994, Power Unseen: How Microbes Rule The World, page xvii).

"Most of the 8,500 people infected with the AIDS virus worldwide each day have little hope of getting the costly new treatments causing so much excitement in the industrialized world, top AIDS experts said Sunday [July 7, 1996]" (Kim Painter, "8,500 New HIV Cases Occur Daily" in USA Today, July 8, 1996, page 1).

"As AIDS exploded into new regions, here are the latest U.N. estimates of new cases of infection and disease in 1997....44,000 North America...47,000 Carribean...180,000 Latin America...4,000,000 Sub-Saharan Africa...19,000 North Afirca and Middle East...30,000 Western Europe...100,000 Eastern Europe amd Central Asia...1,300,000 South and Southeast Asia...180,000 East Asia and The Pacific...and 600 Australia and New Zealand." [Or approximately 16,155/day] (David Perlman, 1998, "Poor Nations Losing Battle Against Aids" in The San Francisco Chronicle, June 24, 1998, page 1 and page A13).

"The first known case of HIV spreading in a form resistant to the most powerful new anti-viral drugs was reported yesterday by San Francisco AIDS specialists. ... The mutated strain of the AIDS virus, seemingly impervious...." ( in The San Francisco Chronicle, July 1, 1998, page 1)

"For the first time, doctors are reporting the ominous spread to a strain of AIDS virus that is resistant to the key medicines that have revolutionized care of the disease over the past two years." (Reno Gazette-Journal, July 1, 1998, page 8A)

"University of Washington scientists have succeeded in reading the entire genetic code in one part of the body's disease-fighting arsenal, opening the door to new research on how the body's immune system works. The achievement, announced Friday [June 21, 1996] in the journal Science, represents the longest segment of human DNA yet decoded: a string of genetic information 684,973 segments long that governs the disease-fighting beta T-cell receptors. The human DNA code has 3 billion such segments, known as nucleotides, and scientists hope to read the entire sequence by 2005" (Bill Dietrich, "Scientists Make History By Decoding Big DNA String" in The Sacramento Bee, June 22, 1996, page B8).

"To the Inuits of northern Canada, DDT [dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane] is one of the scariest poisons imaginable - an invisible toxic chemical that has infiltrated the cells of arctic creatures from plankton to people and turned ordinary whales into floating hazardous waste dumps. To governments in central Africa, it is a chemical safety net, a primary defense against a worsening malaria epidemic that kills 5,000 children each day in countries south of the equator." (The San Francisco Chronicle, June 29, 1998, page A8)

"'America began to change on a mid-September day in 1958, when the Bank of America dropped its first 60,000 credit cards on the unassuming city of Fresno, California,' according to Joseph Nocera, in his book A Piece of the Action: How The Middle Class Joined The Money Class. (In Josh Hammond & James Morrison, 1996, The Stuff Americans Are made Of: The Seven Cultural Forces That Define Americans--A New Framework For Quality, Productivity & Profitability, page 245).

"USA Today published the first issue, Volume 1, Number 1 on September 15, 1982; in 1984, "it was losing more than $10 million a month. Put another way, the newspaper was losing $339,726 every day, $14,155 every hour, $236 every minute, $3.93 every second. ... [finally] USA Today broke into the black with profit of $1,093,756 for month of May [1987], six months ahead of schedule" (Peter S. Prichard, 1987, The Making Of McPaper: The Inside Story of USA Today, pages 305 and 378].

NOTE: As of September 30, 1996, according to The World Almanac And Book Of Facts 1998: page 256

Wall Street Journal with a circulation of 1,783,532 [1,763,140 in the previous year]
USA Today with a circulation of 1,591,629 [1,523,610 in the previous year ]
New York Times with a circulation of 1,071,120 [1,081,541 in the previous year ]
Los Angeles Times with a circulation of 1,029,073 [1,012,189 in the previous year ]
Washington Post with a circulation of 789,198 [ 793,660 in the previous year ]

"Murders and physical assaults in the workplace have climbed to a record high.... There were 1,071 Americans murdered at work in 1994, and 160,000 physically assaulted" (Marilyn Elias, in USA Today, July 8, 1996, page 1). "Of the 1,071 workplace homicides in 1994, 56 percent [560] of the victims worked in retailing or other service industries" (San Francisco Chronicle, July 9, 1996, page A4).

"More than 2,600 people in California were victims of reported hate crimes last year, a figure that authorities admit may not paint an accurate picture of the problem.... crimes authorities believe were motivated by bias related to race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation or disability...." (San Francisco Examiner, July 19, 1996, page A-2).

"If Western Nevada Clean Communities reaches its goal of recycling 100,000 [telephone] books, 4,200 trees will be saved, 750 cubic yards of landfill space will be available for something else and 1.75 million gallons of water will be conserved." (Reno Gazette-Journal, August 1, 1996, page B1)

"The news media are usually thought of as agents for change, and sometimes this is true. ... Bad news can in fact persuade people that the world is much more dangerous than it is. George Gerbner of the Annenberg School of Communication at the University of Pennsylvania finds that people who watch a lot of television see the world as much more threatening and filled with menace than those who watch less [stress added]" (Caryl Rivers, 1996, Slick Spins And Fractured Facts: How Cultural Myths Distort The News, page 3).

"Last year, about 208,000 portable computers were stolen--nearly twice the number of filched desktop computers. ... In 1994, only 150,000 laptops were taken" (Jeff Zeleny, "Laptops: Little, Light--And Easy To Filch" in The Wall Street Journal, July 9, 1996, page B1). [SO, ~569/day!]

"McDonald's Japan, currently with 1,688 stores nationwide [in Japan], is opening another 500 this year alone. ...in 2006, it plans to have no fewer than 10,000 stores throughout the country [of Japan!]. ... McDonald's Corp. of the United States owns 50 percent of McDonald's Japan, and the expansion is part of the parent company's worldwide plan to add as many as 3,200 units this year and next to its 18,000 restaurants. ... Kentucky Fried Chicken has more than 1,000 outlets nationwide [in Japan].... [stress added]" (Michelle Magee, "Big Mac Attack In Japan" in the San Francisco Chronicle, July 6, 1996, pages D1 and D6).

"Of the 2,700 restaurants McDonald's expects to open worldwide this year [1997], nearly 75% will be outside the USA." (USA Today, June 6, 1997, page 2B)

AND NOTE information about "Barnes & Noble's Superstores" in the USA: "With 483 Barnes & Noble superstores and 582 mall-based B. Dalton's the company inked sales in the year ended in January [1998] of $2.8 billion, over double the total four years ago. ... forsees adding 500 more supersize Barnes & Noble stores over the next decade." (I. Jeanne Dugan, "The Bargain Of Books.' Business Week, June 29, 1998, pages 108-115)

"The world is headed for an unprecedented food shortage that neither science nor current farming practises will be able to meet, a summit of leading agriculture scientists has concluded. ...the Third World's population is expected to grow by 2 billion people by 2025, developing countries will need at least 75 percent more food than currently consumed.... 'A global wake-up call is needed'.... The world must also cope with an unprecedented increase in population, with projected growth averaging 90 million people annually." ("World Food Shortage Is In Store, Agriculture Scientists Warn" in The Sacramento Bee, July 13, 1996, page A14)

"Scientific evidence is mounting that...music may be as powerful a food for the brain as for the soul. Not only does it pluck at emotional heart strings, but scientists say that it also turns on brain circuits that aid recognition of patterns and structures critical to development of mathematics skills, logic, perception and memory" (Bill Henrrick, "Parents, Studies Say Music Lends An Ear To Learning" in the San Francisco Chronicle, July 6, 1996, page A7).

"Gambling is now bigger than baseball, more powerful than a platoon of Schwarzeneggers, Spielbergs, Madonnas and Oprahs. More Americans went to casinos than to major league ballparks in 1993. Ninety-two million visits!" (The New York Times Magazine, July 17, 1994) and "Nevada's major hotel-casinos grossed $12 billion in fiscal 1995 and reported annual net, pre-federal tax profits of $1.28 billion....In the previous fiscal year the clubs took in $11 billion and had a pre-tax profit of $1.2 billion...." (Reno Gazette-Journal, February 5, 1996, page 4F); and see The Sacramento Bee, July 23, 1996, page B8: "From 1974 to 1994, the amount of money legally wagered annually has risen 2,800 percent, to $482 billion from $17 billion. The gambling industry generates six times the revenue of all American spectator sports combined." [And please see: http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/FApr11-96.html as well as http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/14th_ICAES.html].

"[Las] Vegas absorbs land at two acres an hour. Clark County's vacant land is being consumed by development at the rate of about two acres an hour, according to planners involved in Southern Nevada's unprecedented growth. ... have estimated that up to 8,000 acres a year have been absorbed by growth. That comes to about one square mile--or 640-acre section--a month, or just about under an acre an hour. ... But numbers kept by the Clark County Health District show the valley's vacant land being absorbed at more than twice that rate--two acres an hour. ... Las Vegas planners show that 63 percent of all its 70,000 acres are developed, with 25,000 acres of vacant land remaining." (Reno Gazette-Journal, July 15, 1997, page 3E)

FINALLY, PLEASE CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING about a child, born May 5, 1997: "Like no generation before, Alyssa's enters a consumer culture, surrounded by logos, labels, and ads almost from the moment of birth. As an infant, Alyssa may wear Sesame Street diapers and miniature pro baskeball jerseys. By the time she's 20 months old, she will start to recognize some of the thousands of brands flashed in front of her each day. At age 7 [in the year 2004], she will see some 20,000 TV commercials a year. By the time she's 12 [in the year 2009], she will have her own entry in the massive data banks of marketers. Multiply Alyssa by 30 million--the number of babies born in this country since 1990--and you have the largest generation to flood the market since their baby boom parents. More impressive than their numbers, though, is their wealth." (Business Week, June 30, 1997, page 62)

I. RESEARCH & ECOLOGY & SUBSISTENCE (and have a look at Professor Murad's "Skull Module" located at http://www.csuchico.edu/anth/Module/skull.html) as well as information on Australian Aborigines at http://www.insects.org/ced1/aust_abor.html and "Australian Aborigines On-Line" at http://www.gu.edu.au/gint/ozlit/austab.htm and http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Aboriginal.html).

A positive appreciation of the diversity of contemporary and past human cultures and an awareness of the value of anthropological perspectives and knowledge in contemporary society.

Knowledge of the methodology appropriate to the sub-disciplines of anthropology and the capacity to apply appropriate methods when conducting anthropological research.

Knowledge of the history of anthropological thought.

"Facts are not really like boulders that have been detached and shaped and deposited exclusively by the play of forces of non-human nature. They are like flaked and chipped flints, hewn stones, bricks or briquettes. Human action has had a hand in making them what they are, and they would not be what they are if this action had not taken place. ... Facts are, in truth, exactly what is meant by the Latin word facta from which the English word is derived. They are 'things that have been made'.... (Arnold J. Toynbee [1889-1975], A Study of History: Reconsiderations, Volume 12, 1964: 250)

A. VTAPE: Mysteries of Mankind
B. FILM: Primitive People [CFU: Horrible title but semi-reasonable film!]
C. VTAPE: Hunters-Gatherers/Pastoralists
D. ESSAY: Body Ritual Among the Nacirema [please see below in this Notebook] and if you have access to the WWW, please see http://www.beadsland.com/nacirema/[but read the article below first].

II. A STRATEGY OF ADAPTATION: CULTURAL EVOLUTION

A. Importance of Terminology
B. Strategies On Gathering, Hunting, Pastoralism, and....

III. REMINDERS:

A. EXAM I (20%) on FRIDAY 2 OCTOBER 1998
B. Potential EXAM I Questions below in this Notebook
C. Writing Assignment #1 (5%) DUE on FRIDAY 25 SEPTEMBER 1998 and Writing Assignment #1 Instructions available at the end of this Notebook.

IV. SPRADLEY & MCCURDY READINGS:

"Ecology and Subsistence" by Spradley & McCurdy, pp. 101-104
"India's Sacred Cow" by Marvin Harris, pp. 130-140
"Adaptive Failure: Easter's End" by Jared Diamond, pp. 141-150

DIVISION OF LABOR: The rules that govern the assignment of jobs to people.

HUNTING & GATHERING: A subsistence strategy involving the foraging of wild, naturally occurring foods.

PASTORALISM: a subsistence strategy based on the maintenance and use of large herds of animals.

SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES: Strategies used by groups of people to exploit their environment for material necessities. Hunting and gathering, horticulture, pastoralism, agriculture, and industrialism are subsistence strategies.

VIDEOTAPE = Brief review of work of Raymond Dart (1893-1989), Louis Leakey (1903-1972), Mary Leakey (1913-1996), and Charles Darwin (1809-1882).

VIDEOTAPE = "Lucy" discovered = "...a small female australopithecine who lived three million years ago, beside a lake in what is now Ethiopia. With forty percent of her skeleton recovered, she is the most complete specimen of an early hominid ever found. The shape of the pelvic bone shows that she was female, while the leg bones indicate that she walked upright. Her teeth suggest that she was about twenty years old when she died." (Richard E. Leakey, 1981, The Making of Mankind, page 67)

VIDEOTAPE = Richard Leakey, son of the Drs. Louis and Mary Leakey, as the "organizing genius of modern paleontology. ... Homo erectus - the first human species to leave Africa. ... Tools as a reflection of the user."

VIDEOTAPE = Pat Schifman = "The problem for us today is to tease out of the past - to coax out of the evidence - ... And once we know when we started and how we started and what was important, then we may have a very different idea of what it means to be human.

VIDEOTAPE = Deals with DNA research and the hypothesis of a single woman in Africa approximately 200,000 years ago = "the more closely alike the DNA, the more closely related the individuals are."

NOTE:

Luther Young's "Africa 'Eve' mother of us all?" in The Sacramento Bee, February 19, 1990: "A Biochemist's theory that all living humans descended from a single African 'Eve' who lived a relatively brief 200,000 years ago was strongly disputed Sunday by prominent anthropologists. ... The Eve theory was proposed several years ago by Allan C. Wilson, a biochemistry professor at the University of California, Berkeley. Wilson ingeniously applied the genetic 'clock' in a form of DNA, of deoxyribonucleic acid, found in human mitochondria--small areas within a cell, separate from the nucleus, that play an important role in the cell's energy production. Unlike the double-stranded nuclear DNA that controls genetic inheritance for the entire body, mitochondrial DNA, or mtDNA, affects only the mitochondria and is replicated only by women in their female offspring. Theoretically, all women would have had a common ancestor." - theory challenged by Milton H. Wolpoff, University of Michigan anthropologist: "Wolpoff agreed there was probably an Eve. But 'she lived a long time ago, certainly longer than 200,000 years ago.'"

VIDEOTAPE = "The science of anthropology is little more than a hundred years old. New technologies will add other new pieces to the expanding puzzle, but that is all we can expect--random puzzle pieces--never can the entire picture be known. For scientists, the excitement of the quest never diminishes."

SEE Scientific American of April 1992 for article by Wilson & Cann entitled "The Recent African Genesis of Humans" and an opposing article by Thorne & Wolpoff entitled "The Multiregional Evolution of Humans" where they state that "The reasoning behind a molecular clock is flawed" and see Discovery September 1995 (pages 70-81) for some of the latest work by Ofer Bar-Yosef at Kebara.

"One of the greatest lessons that can be learned from the history of science is one of humility. Science may indeed be steadily learning more about the structure of the world, but surely what is known is exceedingly small in relation to what is unknown. There is no scientific theory today, not even a law, that may not be modified or discarded tomorrow." (Martin Gardner, 1990, The New Ambidextrous Universe: Symmetry and Asymmetry From Mirror Reflections to Superstrings, 3rd edition, page 335).

"A British paleontologist has discovered foot, ankle and leg bones that show for the first time how human ancestors walked 3.5 million years ago. Ronald Clarke of the University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, told members of the American Orthopedic Association Wednesday that he stumbled onto the bones three weeks ago in a medical schools storeroom. The bones were in boxes and bags mislabeled as belonging to an antelope and a chimpanzee. ... The bones came from excavations two decades ago at the Sterkfontein caves in South Africa. Clarke says he found them in the storeroom while looking for something else. ... Clarke says the bones show human ancestors in transition from an arboreal heritage. The feet have an ape-like big toe that was long and capable of grasping branches." (USA Today, June 12, 1997, page 1D).

"A hauntingly brief but significant message extracted from the bones of a Neanderthal who lived at least 30,000 years ago has cast new light both on the origin of humans and Neanderthals and on the long disputed relationship between the two. The message consists of a short strip of the genetic material DNA that has been retrieved and deciphered despite the age of the specimen. It indicates that Neanderthals did not interbreed with the modern humans who started to supplant them from their ancient homes about 50,000 years ago. ... The split between Neanderthal and human mitochondrial DNA, which marks the start of the split between the human and Neanderthal lineages, would have occurred between 550,000 and 690,000 years ago, the authors say, while the individual from whom all modern human mitochondrial DNA is descended, would have lived 120,000 to 150,000 years ago. (July 11, 1997, The New York Times)

"My view is that knowledge is a rearrangement of experience, in which we put together those experiences that seem to us to belong together, and put them apart from those that do not" (Jacob Bronowski [1908-1984], The Identity of Man, 1966: 26).

"...the continent of Greater Australia must have been colonised prior to about 40,000 years ago, the times of our ealiest evidence. From all indications the colonists arrived from Southeast Asia by sea, and can be counted amongst the earliest of modern human populations." Harry Lourandos, 1997, Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory (Cambridge University Press) [CSUC: GN/871/L68/1997], pages 296; but also see/read in the same publication:

"The evidence itself is, however, constantly changing or being modified. As we go to press new claims are being made of a radically early chronology for the prehistory of Australia. From the site of Jinmium in the Kimberly of northwestern Australia have been reported fallen panels of rock art engravings dated at between 58,000 and 75,000 years ago, and stone artefacts at between 116,000 and 176,000 years ago." Harry Lourandos, 1997, Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory (Cambridge University Press) [CSUC: GN/871/L68/1997], page xv.

"Aboriginal Australia was divided into some three hundred tribes, each associated with a separate area. Tribal unity was based on common language and common mythology, but not usually upon group action. For the individual native, membership in a local group or horde was much more important than tribal membership. Each horde was identified with a subdivision of the tribal area and consisted of a number of families related to one another through various kinship ties. Males usually dwelt throughout their lives in the territory where they were born; wives were selected from other parts of the tribe and moved to their husbands' place at marriage. But although residence was more commonly based upon father relationships, ties with the mother were also emphasized through important totemic means. Yet more important than either of these social groupings was the biological family unit. ... The family unit has been aptly called the group of orientation. For, in Australia as in most other primitive [sic.] cultures, an individual's family relationships determined the kinship terms and behavior he used toward every other person in his social universe." (D.L. Oliver, The Pacific Islands, 1961, pp. 31-32)

"In considering the political structure of the native Australians we must remember that Australia is a continent, and the only one that was inhabited exclusively by hunters and gatherers. Probably the most formal and the most complex kind of chieftainship recorded in Australia was that of the Jaraldi people in the Lower Murray River country, one of the continents most populous regions. In the middle of the last century, each territorial clan had its own headman and council, and there was also a paramount chief for the entire tribe. The council members of each clan were elected in a meeting between the middle-aged and elderly men, and a few of the outstanding younger ones as well. In a few cases women were also elected." (Carlton S. Coon, The Hunting Peoples, 1971: 282-283).

Also see San Francisco Chronicle of 15 July'92 and article entitled "Australia's Aborigines Fighting Back After Years of Oppression" on page A11 = "Despite Australia's reputation as a socially progressive nation, education, health and labor conditions for the country's 300,000 aborigines remain inadequate. It is only in the last 20 years that the federal government has exerted power over the country's six states to enforce civil and human rights laws after a 200-year legacy of near genocide."

Also see San Francisco Chronicle of 29 May 1997: "Australia ruled out any compensation yesterday for 100,000 ABoriginal children forcibly taken from their families by the government for more than a half a century until the early 1970s. ... Under state laws starting in 1910, the government removed Aboriginal children from their families because the white majority considered it as in their best interest. ... Australia's 303,000 Aborigines make up 1 percent of its population. They have long complained of discirimination, and they lag behind other Australians in access to jobs, education and health services" (page A10).

"Until about 10,000 years ago, everyone in the world survived by hunting and gethering wild foods. They lived in intimate association with their natural environments and employed a complex variety of strategies to forage for food and other necessities of life." ["The Hunters: Scarce Resources in the Kalahari" by Richard B. Lee, 1968, in Man The Hunter, reprinted in Spradley & McCurdy, 1997, Conformity and Conflict: Readings In Cultural Anthropology [9th edition], pp. 105-119, page 105.)

"We cannot know all that we have gained in acquiring civilization until we know what we have lost." Elman Service, 1996, The Hunters, page 1. "Pastoral nomadism is in fundamental ways the ecological converse of forest agriculture: an adaptation to open semi-arid grassland as opposed to tropical rain forest, a commitment to animal husbandry to the virtual exclusion of plant cultivation, and an economic basis rather of chiefdoms than of segmentary tribes." Marshal Sahlins, 1968, Tribesmen, page 32.

"...an unwitting or a deliberate bias in time perspective. The evaluations about which we hear most have been made by Western Europeans and their colonial descendants. The date is the present, when the star of the Occident is in its ascendancy and its followers have made themselves the masters and arbiters of the lifeways of the people with whom they compare themselves. It might, of course, be argued on the Darwinian principle of the survival of the fittest that this ascendancy is proof of racial superiority, except that it is a relatively recent phenomenon that is not correlated with any demonstrable change in the biological composition of Europeans a generation prior to A.D. 1492. The truth is that a European mastery of large parts of the globe has been due more to the possession of gunpowder and iron--both non-European inventions--than to racial superiority. Comparisons dating from the period just before the destructive effects of Western civilization made themselves felt would be more justifiable. Our historical records contain many illustrations of the fact that Europe then was not much in advance of many other parts of the world that were conquered by its representatives. When Cortez reached the Aztec city of Tenochtitlàn in 1519, he and his men were understandably astonished by the artistic, industrial, and governmental achievements of its builders [stress added]." H.G. Barnett, 1953, Innovation: The Basis of Cultural Change, page 30.

"The Natufians [of the Middle East] survived in their new life as sedentary hunter-gatherers until, about 11,000 years ago...a sudden cold snap. ... Start moving again or find a new way to survive. They turned to agriculture." William F. Allman, 1994, The Stone Age Present: How Evolution Has Shaped Modern Life--From Sex, Violence, And Language To Emotions, Morals, and Communities (NY: Simon & Schuster), pages 239-240.

"In the age of information, survival still depends on hunters and gatherers. In that modern day tribe called a corporation, it's still the survival of the fittest. And in the treacherous nineties, the fittest will certainly be the best informed. So making it safely--and prosperously--through the next quarter may well depend on having a plentiful supply of the news and information business feeds on." [Paid Advertisement for the Dow Jones Information Services in The Wall Street Journal, August 19, 1991.

"Body Ritual Among the Nacirema" by Horace Miner in The American Anthropologist, Vol. 58 (1956), pp. 503-507.

"The anthropologist has become so familiar with the diversity of ways in which different peoples behave in similar situations that he [or she!] is not apt to be surprised by even the most exotic customs. In fact, if all of the logically possible combinations of behavior have not been found somewhere in the world, he is apt to suspect that they must be present in some yet undescribed tribe. This point, has, in fact been expressed with respect to clan organization by Murdock [of HRAF interests]. In this light, the magical beliefs and practices of the Nacirema present such unusual aspects that it seems desirable to describe them as an example of the extremes to which human behavior can go.

Professor Linton first brought the ritual of the Nacirema to the attention of anthropologists twenty years ago, but the culture of this people is still very poorly understood. They are a North American group living in the territory between the Canadian Cree, the Yaqui and Tarahumare of Mexico, and the Carib and Arawak of the Antilles. Little is known of their origin, although tradition states that they came from the east....

Nacirema culture is characterized by a highly developed market economy which has evolved in a rich natural habitat. While much of the people's time is devoted to economic pursuits, a large part of the fruits of these labors and a considerable portion of the day are spent in ritual activity. The focus of this activity is the human body, the appearance and health of which loom as a dominant concern in the ethos of the people. While such a concern is certainly not unusual, its ceremonial aspects and associated philosophy are unique.

The fundamental belief underlying the whole system appears to be that the human body is ugly and that its natural tendency is to debility and disease. Incarcerated in such a body, man's only hope is to avert these characteristics through the use of the powerful influences of ritual and ceremony. Every household has one or more shrines devoted to this purpose. The more powerful individuals in the society have several shrines in their houses and, in fact, the opulence of a house is often referred to in terms of the number of such ritual centers it possesses. Most houses are of the wattle and daub construction, but the shrine rooms of the more wealthy are walled with stone. Poorer families imitate the rich by applying pottery plaques to their shrine walls.

While each family has at least one such shrine, the rituals associated with it are not family ceremonies but are private and secret. The rites are normally only discussed with children, and then only during the period when they are being initiated into these mysteries. I was able, however, to establish sufficient rapport with the natives to examine these shrines and to have the rituals described to me.

The focal point of the shrine is a box or chest which is built into the wall. In this chest are kept the many charms and magical potions without which no native believes he could live. These preparations are secured from a variety of specialized practitioners. The most powerful of these are the medicine men, whose assistance must be rewarded with substantial gifts. However, the medicine men do not provide the curative potions for their clients, but decide what the ingredients should be and then write them down in an ancient and secret language. This writing is understood only by the medicine men and by the herbalists who, for another gift, provide the required charm.

The charm is not disposed of after it has served its purpose, but is placed in the charmbox of the household shrine. As these magical materials are specific for certain ills, and the real or imagined maladies of the people are many, the charm-box is usually full to overflowing. The magical packets are so numerous that people forget what their purposes were and get to use them again. While the natives are very vague on this point, we can only assume that the idea in retaining all the old magical materials is their presence in the charmbox, before which the body rituals are conducted, will in some way protect the worshipper.

Beneath the charmbox is a small font. Each day every member of the family, in succession, enters the shrine room, bows his head before the charm-box, mingles different sorts of holy water in the font, and proceeds with a brief rite of ablution. The holy waters are secured from the Water Temple of the community, where the priests conduct elaborate ceremonies to make the liquid ritually pure.

In the hierarchy of magical practitioners, and below the medicine men in prestige, are specialists whose designations is best translated 'holy-mouth-men.' The Nacirema have an almost pathological horror of and fascination with the mouth, the condition of which is believed to have a supernatural influence on all social relationships. Were it not for the rituals of the mouth, they believe that their teeth would fall out, their gums bleed, their jaws shrink, their friends desert them, and their lovers reject them. They also believe that a strong relationship exists between oral and moral characteristics. For example, there is a ritual ablution of the mouth for children which is supposed to improve their moral fiber.

The daily body ritual perfo