History 1C: Lecture 16

End of Empires, Asia

World war II completed the undermining of European global hegemony that had been started by WWI. Thus the two wars had similar significance for world history. There were significant differences however that were of prime importance for the contemporary scene: The nazis and the Japanese militarists were infinitely more destructive of the old orders in Europe and asia than the Hollenhozers and Hapsburgs had ever been. The Germans had overrun the entire continent of Europe and the japanese the whole of east and southeast asia. But these vast empires were short lived. They disappeared in 1945 leaving behind two great power vacuums embracing territories of great economic importance and strategic significance. It was the existence of these vacuums, as much as any ideological considerations, that was responsible for the outbreak of the cold war and the inability to conclude a general peace settlement immediately after 1945.

Another difference between the two post-war periods was the successful upsurge of colonial subjects after 1945, in contrast to the enforcement of imperial authority after 1918. Within a period of two decades the far flung European empires had all but disappeared. Thus the two outstanding global developments in the immediate post war years were the colonial revolutions and the cold war. We have already discussed the cold war, now we will turn to colonial revolutions.

A major difference in the first and second world wars lay in their colonial aftermaths. Europe's hold over the colonial empires was weakened but not broken by WWI--indeed colonial holdings were expanded by the acquisition of Arab lands as mandates. After WWII by contrast an irrepressible revolutionary wave swept through the colonial empires and ended the West's domination with dramatic speed. Between 1944 and 1985 a total of 96 countries won their independence, this includes about a third of the world's population. After so many epoch-making triumphs and achievements overseas since the 1500s era of deGama, the Europeans in the mid-twentieth century appeared to be retreating back to the small Eurasian peninsula from which they came 500 years earlier.

I. Roots of Colonial Revolution

During WWII imperial leaders were determined to hold onto their colonies. However, all asia colonies were free within 10 years after war and all African 2 decades after the war. Why?

A.Unprecedented weakening of imperial powers during war:

--France and Holland overrun by and occupied

--Britain debilitated economically and militarily.

B. Democratic anti-imperialistic sentiment within the imperial countries

--Mussolini's attack on Ethiopia in 1935 was regarded in Europe as deplorable

--Anglo-French assault on the Suez in 1956 aroused opposition in France and Britain.

***Lack of will to rule as important as lack of strength

C. JAPAN contributed substantially to colonial revolutions:

--shattered western military prestige by easily driving British out of Malaya and Burma; French out of Indochina; Dutch out of Indonesia; Americas out of the Philippines.

--Political slogan "Asia for the Asians" also Japanese, when forced to surrender conquests left arms with local nationalists.

D. Colonial awakening was also stimulated by service of millions of colonials in the service of Allied and Japanese armies

--Africans under the British, French and Italian

--Indians under British

-- When these men returned home they did not regard local colonial officials with much respect.

II. India and Pakistan

Single most important event in the colonial revolution was India and Pakistan's winning of independence. Usually the resistance took the form of violence. Sometimes it was not. The most compelling example of non-violent resistance was that of Mohandas K. Gandhi -- known as Mahatma Gandhi -- in India. Gandhi's tactics helped put India on the road to independence as early as 1935.

Gandhi was an English-educated lawyer who resented being treated as a second-class citizen in his own land. He believed that the British could only govern India with the active cooperation of the Indian people. He proposed to remove that cooperation. The weapons he devised for himself and his followers were the weapons of non-violence: the peaceful demonstration, the sit-down strike, the hunger strike.

The mindset he followed was called satyagraha; lit., "search for truth." The idea was to scorn conflict, even verbal conflict, and to attempt to contact the best values in one's opponent. Gandhi believed that fear led to defensiveness and defensiveness to anger and conflict. If, however, you showed your opponent that he had nothing to fear from you -- and showed him that repeatedly, no matter what he did to you -- ultimately you could overcome his defensiveness and the two of you could engage together in a common "search for truth;" a more just order.

Gandhi was repeatedly jailed, but his campaign of civil disobedience was inspiring. In 1935, after years of increasingly agonized repression, the British government gave in. The Government of India Act of 1935 gave India a constitution and a firm promise of independence.

The actuality of granting independence, however, was a long time coming and was largely a result of events that happened during WWII.

Indian congress not consulted in declaring war on Germany along with Britain. The Congress began protesting which London rejected time and again until the Japanese armies had overrun southeast asia in 1942 and were poised on Bengal's borders. Churchill sent a cabinet member to India to say that there will be no major changes during the war but after the war India may be autonomous, with the right to secede from commonwealth. Congress turned this offer down and replied with a "Quit India Resolution" demanding immediate freedom "both for the sake of India and the success of the cause of the UN." Also threatened to wage a mass nonviolent struggle if demands not met. Britain replied with repression: 60,000 arrested--including all the congress members--14,000 detained without trial, 940 killed and 1,630 injured.

Critical moment for allies: Japan at India's door and Germany on the Volga ready to take Alexandria. Axis pincers about to close and India in the middle but in upheaval. Britain position would have been impossible if plans had been made for armed uprising, but under Ghandi's leadership only non violent resistance was offered. During rest of war Britain refused to release congress members unless they stopped "Quit India Resolution" They refused and stayed locked up.

1945 Labor Party won in Britain--had traditionally championed freedom for India. Attlee moved swiftly to grant freedom. Had little choice: with rising Nationalism in India, inflamed by wartime experiences britain could repress nationalist movement only by sheer physical force. Also population was sick of Indian problem and supported independence.

1946: could not reconcile Congress party with Moslem League--became clear that political unity was not feasible.

1947: British passed Indian Independence Act. Conflict was resolved by partition with two separate governments Pakistan and the Union of India.

Therefore, in May 1947, this independence was granted. Indian independence occurred in a fairly peaceful fashion and with a fairly orderly transfer of power.

This statement, however, must be heavily qualified: British India promptly split into Hindu India and Moslem Pakistan. These two new nations, much to Gandhi's horror, clashed in a war over the province of Kashmir. Independence brought 15 million refugees and 500,000 to 750,000 dead. Note, however, that this was a war between the indigenous populations, not between the British and natives.

Gandhi himself was killed by an assassin in 1948. His ideas, however, live on and inspired Martin Luther King's civil rights campaign in the United States.

III. Southeast Asia (Japanese)

Pattern similar in nearly every country that Japan occupied: widespread disaffection against western rule contributed to the ease with which Japan overran these countries; then Japan declared the beginning of a "new Order"--Asia for the Asians (much like Germany).

However, Japanese leaders and military did not intend co-prosperity sphere but Japanese empire with varying degrees of control. Japanese army lived off land in these areas causing food and supply shortages. Japan had little to return.

After initial honeymoon period, Japanese and local nationalists had falling out. Had Japanese domination lasted longer, there would have been armed uprisings, however, Japanese forced to pull out in 1945. As they left they did everything they could to make western rule in these areas very difficult: set up for example Ho Chi Minh's govt, provided arms to local nationalists; etc. Within 10 years of Japan's pull out, all these countries were independent. Manner in which these countries won independence varied depending upon who the imperial power was: British, having gone through it with India were the most realistic.

French in Indochina (consisted of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia) fought longer to retain their colony. Laos and Cambodia were easily reoccupied by France but an exhausting struggle with Vietnam drug on. Resistance to restoration of French rule was led by the Viet Minh headed by a communist Ho Chi Minh.